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纳瓦霍语

2020-10-16
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作者:阿族小谱
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使用现状据“美国社区调查”(AmericanCommunitySurvey)在2007年的调查显然,纳瓦霍语的使用者人数有170,717人,这使得纳瓦霍语成为唯一能在其统计图表上被独立表示的北美原住民语言。纳瓦霍语多数的使用者生活于纳瓦霍族保留地。有2.9%的纳瓦霍语使用者为单语使用者,即其缺乏对英语的认知。四个纳瓦霍语使用者比例较高的城镇区域(metro-andmicropolitanarea)分别为法明顿(Farmington,NewMexico,有16.5%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、加路普(Gallup,NewMexico,有12%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、夫拉格斯达夫(Flagstaff,NewMexico,有10.3%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)和阿布奎基(Albuquerque,有5.4%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)。在纳瓦霍语通行的地区,有相当数量的双语浸润(immersion)学校从事保存与推广纳...

使用现状

据“美国社区调查”(American Community Survey)在2007年的调查显然,纳瓦霍语的使用者人数有170,717人,这使得纳瓦霍语成为唯一能在其统计图表上被独立表示的北美原住民语言。纳瓦霍语多数的使用者生活于纳瓦霍族保留地。有2.9%的纳瓦霍语使用者为单语使用者,即其缺乏对英语的认知。四个纳瓦霍语使用者比例较高的城镇区域(metro- and micropolitan area)分别为法明顿(Farmington, New Mexico,有16.5%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、加路普(Gallup, New Mexico,有12%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)、夫拉格斯达夫(Flagstaff, New Mexico,有10.3%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)和阿布奎基(Albuquerque,有5.4%的人口使用纳瓦霍语)。

在纳瓦霍语通行的地区,有相当数量的双语浸润(immersion)学校从事保存与推广纳瓦霍语的工作。

书写系统与音系

子音

下表以IPA给出纳瓦霍语的子音,并于其旁附上该音书写时使用的记号:

h 这个字母,在纳瓦霍语正字法中,被用以表示两个不同的元音,当它出现在词干开头时,它发作 [x] ,在前缀中或词干或单词之结尾时,它发作 [h] 。然而,当 [x] 出现在 s 代表的音之后时,它记作 x 而非 h ,以免与 sh 产生混淆(像 násxéés (意即“我正转身”)即一例,不能将此字记作 náshéés ); gh [ɣ] 这个子音在前元音 i 与 e 前记作 y (在此些音前, [ɣ] 颚化,变作 [ʝ] ),在 o 前则记作 w ( [ɣ] 在此音前唇化,变作 [ɣʷ] ),在 a 前则记作 gh 。出现于单词开头的喉塞音 ʼ 不作表记。

对于 /ɣ/ gh 这个音,其唇化和颚化皆以其书写系统表记,其中 y 表此音之颚化,而 w 表该音之唇化。此书写法不分别其他子音的各种变体。

元音

纳瓦霍语有四个基本的元音: a 、 e 、 i 与 o 。每个元音都分长短音,也分非鼻音和鼻音:

声调

纳瓦霍语有“高声”和“低声”两个声调。每个音节预设的声调为低音,高低两声在长元音的混合,可得四种可能性:

以上这些元音的各种特征的混合是可能的,就如 ą́ą́ (此表高声调之长鼻元音)所表示者一般。

语法

就语言类型学上来讲,纳瓦霍语是种中心语标记(head-marking)的多式综合黏着语,唯其许多的词缀已“缩略”在一起而使之在某方面与屈折语近似。纳瓦霍语的基本语序为主词─受词─动词。德内语支的语言一般使用前缀,这在基本语序为SOV的语言中是不寻常的(此类语言一般倾向使用后缀)。

纳瓦霍语是“动词重心”的语言(verb-heavy),它有许多的动词,但名词的数量相对较少。除此名词与动词外,纳瓦霍语亦有代名词、有着不同功能的附着词素(clitic)、指示词、数词、后置词、副词和连接词等不同的词类存在。哈利·霍衣哲(Harry Hoijer)将名词和动词以外的所有词,都归入一个他称之为“质词”(particle)的词类中。纳瓦霍语没有与英语形容词相对应的词类,其形容词的功能以动词取代。

亦见

南德内语支

参考文献

教育方面

Blair, Robert W.; Simmons, Leon; & Witherspoon, Gary.(1969). Navaho Basic Course . Brigham Young University Printing Services.

Goossen, Irvy W.(1967). Navajo made easier: A course in conversational Navajo . Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press.

Goossen, Irvy W.(1995). Diné bizaad: Speak, read, write Navajo . Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf. ISBN 0-9644189-1-6

Goossen, Irvy W.(1997). Diné bizaad: Sprechen, Lesen und Schreiben Sie Navajo . Loder, P. B.(transl.). Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf.

Haile, Berard.(1941–1948). Learning Navaho ,(Vols. 1–4). St. Michaels, AZ: St. Michael"s Mission.

Platero, Paul R.(1986). Diné bizaad bee naadzo: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Preparatory School.

Platero, Paul R.; Legah, Lorene; & Platero, Linda S.(1985). Diné bizaad bee naʼadzo: A Navajo language literacy and grammar text . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.

Tapahonso, Luci, & Schick, Eleanor.(1995). Navajo ABC: A Diné alphabet book . New York: Macmillan Books for Young Readers. ISBN 0-689-80316-8

Witherspoon, Gary.(1985). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah for secondary schools, colleges, and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.

Witherspoon, Gary.(1986). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah I: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults . Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.

Wilson, Alan.(1969). Breakthrough Navajo: An introductory course . Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.

Wilson, Alan.(1970). Laughter, the Navajo way . Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico at Gallup.

Wilson, Alan.(1978). Speak Navajo: An intermediate text in communication . Gallup, NM: University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.

Wilson, Garth A.(1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers. Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5.

Yazzie, Evangeline Parsons, and Margaret Speas (2008). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo"aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language . Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf, Inc. ISBN 978-1-893354-73-9

语言学方面和其他参考资料

Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Stephen.(1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics , 36 (1), 1–8.

Creamer, Mary Helen.(1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review , 1 , 29–38.

Faltz, Leonard M.(1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars . Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7(hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5(pbk)

Frishberg, Nancy.(1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball(Ed.), Syntax and semantics (Vol. 1, p.259–266). New York: Seminar Press.

Grimes, Barbara F.(Ed.)。(2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world,(14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9.(Online edition:/, accessed on November 19, 2004)。

Hale, Kenneth L.(1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta(Eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane (p.300–309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Navaho phonology . University of New Mexico publications in anthropology,(No. 1)。

Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (1), 13–23.

Hoijer, Harry.(1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 11 (4), 193–203.

Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (1), 1–13.

Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics , 12 (2), 51–59.

Hoijer, Harry.(1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 14 (4), 247–259.

Hoijer, Harry.(1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics , 15 (1), 12–22.

Hoijer, Harry.(1970). A Navajo lexicon . University of California Publications in Linguistics(No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Kari, James.(1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics , 41 , 330–345.

Kari, James.(1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.

McDonough, Joyce.(2003). The Navajo sound system . Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5(hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3(pbk)

Reichard, Gladys A.(1951). Navaho grammar . Publications of the American Ethnological Society(Vol. 21). New York: J. J. Augustin.

Sapir, Edward.(1932). Two Navaho puns. Language , 8 (3), 217-220.

Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1942). Navaho texts . William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.

Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language . Berkeley: University of California Press.

Speas, Margaret.(1990). Phrase structure in natural language . Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-0755-0

Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William.(1994). Navajo-English dictionary . New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4.(Originally published [1958] by U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs)。

Webster, Anthony K.(2004). Coyote Poems: Navajo Poetry, Intertextuality, and Language Choice. American Indian Culture and Research Journal , 28 , 69-91.

Webster, Anthony K.(2006). "ALk"idaa" Ma"ii Jooldlosh, Jini": Poetic Devices in Navajo Oral and Written Poetry. Anthropological Linguistics , 48(3) , 233-265.

Webster, Anthony K.(2009). Explorations in Navajo Poetry and Poetics . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Witherspoon, Gary.(1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist , 73 , 110-127.

Witherspoon, Gary.(1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8; ISBN 0-472-08965-X

Yazzie, Sheldon A.(2005). Navajo for Beginners and Elementary Students . Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press.

Young, Robert W.(2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0(hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3(pbk)

Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr.(1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1

Young, Robert W.; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally.(1992). Analytical lexicon of Navajo . Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6; ISBN 0825313566

外部链接

Hózhǫ́ Náhásdlį́į́ʼ - Language of the Holy People(有着Flash、影音和纳瓦霍语学习帮助的纳瓦霍语网站), gomyson.com

Some English - Diné Dictionary (pronunciations), blackmesais.org

Contrasts between Navajo consonants(Peter Ladefoged的声音档). humnet.ucla.edu

Navajo Language & Bilingual Links(圣胡安学区(San Juan school district)之资料). sanjuan.k12.ut.us

Navajo Language Academy, navajolanguageacademy.org

Tuning in to Navajo: The Role of Radio in Native Language Maintenance, jan.ucc.nau.edu

An Initial Exploration of the Navajo Nation"s Language and Culture Initiative, jan.ucc.nau.edu

Báʼóltaʼí Adoodleełgi Bínaʼniltingo Bił Hazʼą́(Center for Diné Teacher Education), dinecollege.edu

Languagegeek Unicode fonts and Navajo keyboard layouts, languagegeek.com

Navajo fonts, dinecollege.edu

The Navajo Language, library.thinkquest.org

Navajo language (Encyclopedia of North American Indians), college.hmco.com

Inventory of the Robert W. Young Papers, 1860-1992(bulk 1823-1980), libxml.unm.edu

Reflections on Navajo Poetry, ou.edu

语言学方面之资料

Navajo reflections of a general theory of lexical argument structure(Ken Hale & Paul Platero), museunacional.ufrj.br

Remarks on the syntax of the Navajo verb part I: Preliminary observations on the structure of the verb(Ken Hale), museunacional.ufrj.br

The Navajo Prolongative and Lexical Structure(Carlotta Smith), cc.utexas.edu

A Computational Analysis of Navajo Verb Stems(David Eddington & Jordan Lachler), linguistics.byu.edu

Grammaticization of Tense in Navajo: The Evolution of nt’éé(Chee, Ashworth, Buescher & Kubacki), linguistics.ucsb.edu

A methodology for the investigation of speaker’s knowledge of structure in Athabaskan(Joyce McDonough & Rachel Sussman), urresearch.rochester.edu

How to use Young and Morgan’s The Navajo Language(Joyce McDonough), bcs.rochester.edu

Time in Navajo: Direct and Indirect Interpretation(Carlota S. Smith, Ellavina T. Perkins, Theodore B. Fernald), cc.utexas.edu

OLAC Resources in and about the Navajo language


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