马
特征
马耳小而直立,面部长;额、颈上有长鬃,尾有长毛,四肢强健,内侧有附蝉,第三趾最发达,趾端有马蹄,其余各趾退化;毛色复杂,有骝、栗、青、黑等。
演化
马的化石非常丰富,所以马的进化过程也被研究得非常详细。马的进化常常被用来作为进化的例子。
最早的马叫始祖马,出现于五千七百万年前的北美洲,时值始新世。始祖马个头只有狗那么大,弓著背,四肢长著多个趾头(前脚四只趾头,后脚三个)。由始祖马分化出了林林总总的众多支系。有的支系越来越大,越来越擅长奔跑,也有的支系向着小型化发展。到中新世的时候以三趾马为代表的马类动物成了一类十分繁盛的动物群,是地层古生物中常见的化石动物,常常作为地质年代断定的重要依据。
现代马的最直接祖先是出现于一千二百万年前晚中新世的恐马,而现代马则在四百万年前的上新世出现。北美洲一直是马和马类动物起源和演化中心。马从这里起源并向四周辐射。马通过冰川时期形成的白令陆桥扩散到欧亚大陆,在上新世进入非洲,成为非洲大陆动物群的重要一员。马也通过中美地峡向南美洲扩撒。最晚到大约两万年前,马在北美洲彻底灭绝,南美的马灭绝得更早。原因现在仍是谜。有人认为跟美洲印第安人过度捕猎有关。从此,在近五千六百多年的时间里作为马的发源地的北美洲第一次没有了马的存在,一直到公元十六世纪西班牙人再一次把马带回了美洲。Discovery制作的一期关于马的节目里说道“当印第安人第一次见到西班牙人带来的马的时候,感觉像是见到了久别重逢的老朋友”。
现代饲养的马是由欧洲野马驯化而来的。野生的马已经灭绝。现存的普氏野马不是家马的祖先。马的进化历程充满了艰难险阻。马科动物曾经是如此繁盛,前后进化出几十个属,到最后却只有一个属六七种残存至今。马的兴衰历程实际上是奇蹄动物的兴衰历程,奇蹄动物在现代普遍呈衰落的趋势。
直到工业革命蒸汽机出现以前,一直是主要的拉车动力,以至后来“马力”成了衡量机器功率的单位。在山区无法行车的路上,马至今仍是主要的运载工具。
在战争中最早也是拉战车,由游牧民族首先发明骑乘,古希腊与古罗马已有骑兵。中国民族直到战国时期赵武灵王胡服骑射才开始出现骑兵。马鞍也是游牧民族发明的,后来经过不断的改进;马镫的发明有多种说法,包括斯基泰人发明说,印度人发明说,中国人发明说等,而在中国流传的马镫的发明说法则是中国人在汉朝发明的,一开始只是一个,为便于上马,后来发展为一边一个,波斯人称为“中国鞋”,后来才传到欧洲。直到进入20世纪之后,由于各种战车、直升机的出现和普及,骑兵才开始退出战争。现今骑乘多用于赛马运动,有的大城市巡警也还用马。
马也可以作为乳用和肉用,教律法禁止食用马肉(回族、阿拉伯人与波斯人,但人不禁止),公元732年教皇格列高利三世下令禁止基督教徒食用马肉,但后来作用不大,现在法国人、意大利人都食用马肉,日本人认为马肉是营养丰富的肉食。在二战期间,美国允许肉店供应马肉以弥补牛肉供应不足,但二战结束后,在美国西部牧场主的压力下,又禁止供应马肉。马乳一直是游牧民族的食品,尤其适合酿造“马奶酒”。
随着马的使用功能淡化,20世纪后半期,许多国家培育出各种小马,作为宠物或导盲用途。现在经过几千年人的培育,马的种类繁多,从高达2米到只有0.56米,体形各异。
词汇
量词单位: 匹
西班牙圣塞巴斯蒂安东南卞蒂斯山上的马
希腊神话中的珀伽索斯
马的辞汇:
儿马,公马
骡,驴和马杂交的后代
驹,小马
骟,去势丧失生育能力的马
骠,黄色的马
骝,黑鬃黑尾的红色马
劣,性情暴躁不容易驾御的马
骅,枣红色的马
骊,黑色的马
䯄,黑嘴的黄色马
骐,青黑色的马
骓,黑色白蹄的马
骢,青白相间,类似兰色的马
龙,高大的马
骧,后右蹄白色的马
骍,赤色的马和牛,亦泛指赤色
驽,劣马、能力低劣的马。
文化
生肖
香港九龙寨城公园十二生肖像之马
在中国传统的十二生肖中排名第七位,对应的地支是午。
姓氏
马姓是常见的中文姓氏之一。除了汉族以外,其他民族也有不少马姓人士。马姓是回族的大姓之一,是由穆罕默德姓汉化而来(也有人认为是由法蒂玛转化而来),云南回族几乎清一色姓马。
画马艺术
马一直以来被视为力与美的结合,不单是担任骑乘或负重的工作,阿拉伯人以马为的恩赐,值得人的崇拜与爱护。画马艺术更是历久不衰,屹立不摇。
商标或标志
跑车名牌法拉利、保时捷等的厂徽是一匹跃起的骏马。福特汽车公司所推出的福特野马跑车则是一匹奔跑的骏马。
传说中的名马
赤兔马、的卢马、绝影、爪黄飞电、松风、白龙马、昭陵六骏
参见
马步
马力
名驹
赛马
马术
马奶酒
始祖马
汗血马
白龙马
赤兔马
马匹毛色
昭陵六骏
的驴马
青铜奔马
蒙古马
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